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Find out moreWhen it comes to war, not all roads lead to Rome – but Monte Cassino certainly did. The hill-top monastery, and the battle for it, became the Allies’ one real shot at taking the German-occupied Italian capital during World War Two. All that stood in their way were 140,000 German soldiers – and a 1,700ft hill.
After successes such as El Alamein and Tobruk during the North African campaign, and the capture of Sicily, the Allies’ next target was mainland Italy.
The Americans wanted to strike northern France as soon as they could, but British Prime Minister Winston Churchill believed that attacking through Italy would be the best way to weaken the enemy’s stranglehold on Europe – describing it as the continent’s ‘soft underbelly’.
What happened next was a complex series of battles between Allied and German forces, spanning five months between January and May 1944.
The Battle of Monte Cassino came at a bitter cost at this crucial stage of WW2 – with significant losses across Allied forces, German troops and civilians, as well as the destruction of an ancient monastery.
German paratrooper observing lower ground from Monte Cassino
Bundesarchiv, Bild 146-1974-006-62 / Czirnich / CC-BY-SA 3.0
Monte Cassino is a 520m-tall hill in Cassino, within the Latin Valley, in the Lazio region of Italy. Home to one of the oldest and largest Catholic monasteries in the country – the abbey of Monte Cassino – it has sacred and historical relevance.
Founded in the 6th century by Saint Benedict of Nursia, the abbey was, and still is, considered a holy monument of peace. It was rebuilt several times through its history – long before the outbreak of WW2 in 1939 – following natural disasters and historical sieges. The small town of Cassino sat at the foot of the hill-top monastery, with roots dating from 312 BC.
Monte Cassino proved pivotal to the Germans’ strategic Gustav Line, as it effectively controlled access to the road to Rome, less than 150km (or 93 miles) away. While German troops supposedly stayed out of the monastery in respect of its religious status, they defended the surrounding hillside in large numbers.
The Gustav Line was one of several vital lines of defence orchestrated by Axis forces (the wartime coalition of Germany, Italy and Japan) during WW2, in this case to defend Rome and occupied Italy.
To reach the Gustav Line and seize the Italian capital, the Allies would need to successfully capture each defensive stronghold along the way, including two additional lines to overcome before they could claim Gustav.
Across September and October 1943, allied troops successfully broke the Volturno Line and then the Barbara Line, paving the way to Gustav and Monte Cassino.
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Kesselring was one of Adolf Hitler’s top defensive strategists during WW2. Originally a Field Marshal of the Luftwaffe, Germany’s elite air force, he became German commander in chief, south, and commander in chief, west, during WW2.
Kesselring commanded air forces invading Poland and France, and during the Battle of Britain. He later oversaw Erwin Rommel and the Axis forces during the North African campaign, and would ultimately command the defence at the battle for Monte Cassino.
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A prominent United States Army officer, General Mark Wayne Clark commanded the US 5th Army and Allied forces during the Italian campaign, leading them to Rome – the first enemy capital to fall during the war.
In 1952, Clark went on to command the units of the United Nations during the Korean War.
British Field Marshal Harold Alexander led the Allies in WW2 during campaigns in North Africa, Italy and western Europe. Famously, he was the ‘last man to leave the beaches’ at Dunkirk.
Alexander had become British commander in chief in the Mediterranean theatre during 1942, while General Bernard Montgomery was his chief field commander in North Africa, where they clashed with ‘desert fox’ Erwin Rommel. In 1944, he became commander in chief of the Allied forces in Italy. He would go on to serve in Winston Churchill’s government as Minister of Defence.
Walker was a highly noted senior officer of the United States Army, and commanded the 36th Texas Infantry Division during the Italian campaign.
Anders was the commanding officer of the Polish II Army, leading his troops in the fight against Kesselring throughout the Italian campaign.
Previously captured and imprisoned by the Soviets at the start of WW2, until the Polish-Soviet agreement in 1941 saw him released, he reformed the Polish army and led them on an extraordinary journey to the Middle East, North Africa and then onwards to Italy.
Read more about the incredible story of Władysław Anders and The Polish Corps.
Bernard Freyberg was the commander in chief of the New Zealand forces during WW2. A key general of the New Zealand Expeditionary Force, he led his troops in the Battle of El Alamein and the Italian campaign. After the war, Freyberg became governor-general of New Zealand.
Leese was a senior officer of the British Army, best known for commanding the recently formed XXX Corps during the campaigns in North Africa and Sicily. He then went on to command the British 8th Army during the Battle of Monte Cassino, at a crucial moment in the Italian campaign.
Keyes was a senior officer of the United States Army, commanding Allied forces in North Africa, Sicily, Italy and Germany during WW2. He was in charge of the US II Corps during the Italian campaign.
A senior officer of the French army, Juin was taken prisoner by the Germans during the Battle of France in 1940. After his release as a PoW, he went on to lead the Free French forces in the later stages of WW2, notably in Tunisia and Italy as Rome fell to the Allies.
Monte Cassino was a particularly challenging situation for the Allies.
First Battle: Northern Sector 24 January – 11 February 1944
“It’s a solid dictum of military history [that] you don’t invade Italy from the south,” notes historical expert Matthew Parker.
“Napoleon said ‘it’s a boot – you go in the top’. Hannibal went all the way around the Alps…to avoid southern Italy.”
Indeed, no one had successfully captured Rome from the south since Belisarius in AD 536. With high mountains and unforgiving rivers to traverse, the natural barriers between Naples and Cassino made advancing from below a literal uphill battle.
“That’s why Kesselring chose Cassino,” explains Parker. “It’s the last position south of Rome” – not to mention one of the most formidable defensive positions in the whole of Europe.
After emancipating Naples on October 1, the Allies travelled north with a huge advantage in aircraft and tanks. However, they would soon face one of the hardest winters in living memory. Biting temperatures and lashings of rain and snow, combined with challenging terrain and man-to-man combat, eventually rendered their advantage all but useless.
“By the time the Allied armies have advanced up to Cassino, they were absolutely exhausted, and morale was in freefall”
Matthew Parker
The Allied fighters who charged the front line against the German forces came from a diverse range of nations, including:
“One of the fascinating things about the battle is its incredibly international nature,” notes Parker.
“You’ve got all these nationalities, and they’re all there for different reasons and with very different perspectives… bringing that together was an almost impossible task.”
Approximately 240,000 Allied soldiers fought in the Battle of Monte Cassino, including:
Among the key hardware at their disposal, the Allied forces fielded around:
The Axis forces were made up of approximately 140,000 men.
By October 13th 1943, Italy had declared war on Germany. As a result, during the battle of Monte Cassino, the defence consisted solely of German troops from the 10th Army, including key formations such as the XIV Panzer Corps.
Matthew Parker compares the American and British forces to “civilians in uniform” – essentially ordinary conscripts. “They’re not really soldiers in the sense that the Germans are, who have been in uniform since they were seven in the Hitler Youth”.
The British X Corps fought in the US 5th Army at Monte Cassino. This included key regiments such as:
The British 8th Army also joined the fight in May 1944. This comprised various British formations and divisions, including the British XIII Corps and the British 78th Infantry Division.
The Polish II Corps joined the Battle of Monte Cassino in May 1944. Brought in with the British 8th Army for the fourth battle, the Polish troops played a pivotal, and personal, part in the assault.
Many of these soldiers were former Soviet prisoners of war, and their siege on the monastery was fierce and bloody. Of the 55,000 Allied casualties at Monte Cassino, approximately 1,000 were Polish soldiers.
When they eventually raised their national flag above Monte Cassino in victory, it became a powerful symbol of Polish freedom and sacrifice during the war.
The fight ultimately took the form of four long, devastating set-piece battles in an excruciating struggle of attrition.
Despite suffering significant casualties to reach Cassino, the Allies pushed on.
“There was this urge to keep going, partly in order to reduce the time the Germans had to prepare defensive positions further north, but also for political reasons,” says Parker.
The Allies were criticised in the press for the slow pace of the campaign, he explains, so this was partly responsible for their motivation to push forward with Monte Cassino. “This is the only active front that the Western Allies have against the Germans at this point.”
German paratroopers at Monte Cassino
“It was the last strong defensive position before Rome, and the capture of Rome would obviously have huge propaganda value for the Allies.
“Effectively what they're doing is being sucked into this huge trap that's been set for them at Cassino.”
- Matthew Parker
January 17-20, 1944
Allied attempts to cross the Garigliano and Rapido rivers begin, but ultimately end in disaster.
February 15, 1944
Monte Cassino’s historic Benedictine monastery is bombed; one of the most controversial military decisions of World War Two.
March 15, 1944
A second air attack is launched, as the 4th Indian Division and 2nd New Zealand Division advance. Bloody battles erupt in the town of Cassino.
May 11, 1944
Having regrouped, the Allies make their fourth and final push. Despite heavy losses, French, Canadian, British, Polish and US forces fight their way across crucial rivers and mountain passes.
May 18, 1944
With defences and supply-lines broken, German troops retreat from their positions. General Anders and the Polish II Corps raise the Polish flag above the Abbey ruins.
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Two main attacks initiated the first phase of the battle, the results of which threw the Allies off their plan altogether, and sent them spiralling into months of bloodshed.
“They were actually very successful… but they weren't backed by the high command,” says Parker. “That's the big ‘What If?’ story of Cassino. If that effort in the mountains was backed, they could have actually gone round [in this position].”
This setback left the US 36th Infantry Division unprotected on both flanks as they began to cross the Rapido River, now under enemy observation. By this stage, the 36th had already lost half of its men in previous battles south of Cassino, and it was about to get worse.
Under German fire, on January 20th, the US 36th Infantry Division began to cross the river, hampered by its fast-flowing current. The Germans sabotaged the riverbank with landmines, and the Allies quickly lost any foothold they might have gained.
The attack resulted in more than 2,000 Allied casualties in just two days.
“It was the biggest US military disaster since Pearl Harbour,” says Parker. “It was a humiliating defeat.”
Also known as Operation Shingle, The Battle of Anzio took place behind the Gustav Line. The strategists who planned this surprise amphibious attack on the west coast of Italy had high hopes of success, but little reward would follow.
“Of course, there was going to be a counter-attack against the bridgehead,” Parker explains. “So, in order to save the bridgehead, which was supposed to unlock the Gustav Line, the Allies were forced to launch another attack in February, which became the second Battle [of Monte Cassino]… Anzio became the tail that wagged the dog.”
With little success breaking Anzio’s defences, battle would continue for months in a deadlock. This left Monte Cassino the Allies’ only chance to make progress. The stakes could not have been higher.
In February 1944, the most controversial of the four assaults began.
“This is one of Christianity's most holy sites and a huge repository of learning,” explains Parker, “but for the soldiers, you can’t attack a hill but not attack the building that's sitting on top of the hill.”
The frustration and chaos of static war and rising casualties crept into the minds of the Allies.
“The monastery just cast this malign spell … everywhere you are, you can see it, and it can see you. It’s like this big eye sitting on top of this mountain.”
Matthew Parker
Recognised as some of the Allies’ best and most-weathered troops, the 4th Indian Division were sent north to capture Monastery Hill ahead of the attack. Meanwhile, the 2nd New Zealand Division charged the town of Cassino.
After much debate over the decision, the bombing of the abbey of Monte Cassino finally commenced on February 15th, reducing the sacred religious building to ruins.
It was a definingly grim moment in a definingly grim battle.
News of the attack echoed around the world, with the devastation of such a sacred monument – and accompanying loss of life – not going ignored.
While the Allies celebrated, the bombing of Monte Cassino became a “huge propaganda victory for the Germans”, Parker explains. Filming the barrage, Kesselring sought to frame the Allies as philistines internationally.
The bombing was seemingly in vain too. As Clark had predicted, when the time came for the 4th Indian Division to attack the ruins, they quickly found the remaining walls had created an even better fortress for the Germans. All the while, the narrow mountain ridges made it almost impossible to replenish Allied supplies.
“If anything, it made it more difficult to ferret out its defenders. Their attack on the monastery and on the positions around the monastery is a total failure.”
Matthew Parker
Following their most contentious military tactic yet, the Allied forces were forced to pause for a few weeks due to the onset of some terrible weather.
It was obvious they were not prepared for the full-scale infantry assault that would be needed to accompany the demolition of the abbey. The 2nd New Zealand Division failed to successfully attack the town of Cassino, and the 4th Indian Division lacked sufficient mortar shells and grenades to finish their assault on the abbey ruins.
The 2nd New Zealand Division began an extraordinary battle in close proximity to the Germans, more similar to the combat of World War One. “In some cases, the Germans will be in one house, and through a narrow wall, the New Zealanders will be in another,” notes Parker.
The 2nd Division managed to capture the railway station, while the 4th Indian Division pushed the Germans from Castle Hill near the ruins of Monte Cassino abbey. But with little progress to show for this, and scenes of bloody carnage throughout the town, the Allies withdrew their attack and were forced to face up to another failure.
The fourth and final battle for Monte Cassino would begin several months later, after an extended and essential recovery period.
Sherman tank of the 19th Armoured Regiment at Monte Cassino
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“Part of the problem for the New Zealanders is rather like with the destruction of the monastery – everywhere, there’s rubble and massive shell holes. There's no way for tanks to get anywhere near.”
- Matthew Parker
May 1944. After months of patience and preparation, the Allies had regrouped, strengthened their units and waited for the weather to improve in the valley. Now, Allied ground commander General Alexander set about forming a new plan: Operation Diadem.
The British 5th Army moved from the Adriatic front to join the fight at Monte Cassino, while large forces were assembled and moved into place at a number of key locations.
“[Alexander’s] amassed massive superiority in numbers – something like four to one – and then even more for tanks and aircraft and artillery,” says Parker.
The renewed push began on May 11th, only a few weeks before the Normandy landings in France. After a surprise artillery attack involving 1,600 guns firing across the front line, the Allies faced the German 10th Army with a reformed plan:
“It was force of material superiority.”
- Matthew Parker
After months of fruitless efforts, the Allies managed to cut off the German supply lines and outmatch them in strength and numbers. Finally seeing his formidable defence shattered, Kesselring was forced to withdraw his troops and retreat, after the bloodiest engagement yet.
On May 18th, General Anders and his Polish II Corps raised their country’s flag above the crumbled remains of Monte Cassino abbey.
It was victory, in the end. But victory at a terrible price.
A costly and controversial battle, many Allied soldiers thought of Monte Cassino as a “pyrrhic victory”.
When the Allies entered Rome on June 4th, prioritising capturing the capital over cutting off the German 10th Army, this let the Germans escape north to the Gothic Line, where they would eventually fight again.
Quite the opposite to the ‘soft underbelly’ they imagined, Monte Cassino was not the strategic success the Allies planned for. Rather, General Mark Clark would later describe the Italian campaign as a ‘tough old gut’, and reflect on the bombing of the abbey as a grave mistake.
As Parker notes, many Italians were “appalled” at the destruction of the monastery.
One local resident named Tony Pittaccio, who Parker interviewed for his book about the battle, had this to say:
Sherwood Foresters during the advance to the Gothic Line
“The monastery was for us, the assurance that goodness would triumph over evil and the promise that it would never be destroyed when the life would continue. We said our daily prayers with eyes turned towards the monastery. It was a source of great comfort.
“When it was bombed, we just could not believe what we were seeing. A part of all of us, especially me and my family, died with it. Nothing was sacred anymore. And the world had truly become a darkened place.”
- Tony Pittaccio
After the war, Monte Cassino’s abbot, Ildefonso Rea, led the reconstruction of the abbey, where they retrieved the holy relics and remains of Saint Benedict and Saint Scholastica.
Today, Monte Cassino is once again a place of peace and reverence, where the Monte Cassino war cemetery forms the final resting place for thousands of fallen Allied soldiers.
Monte Cassino is famous for its ancient, Benedictine monastery situated at the top of a hill, close to Rome. Monte Cassino abbey is one of the largest monasteries in Italy, and is in turn known for the infamous Battle of Monte Cassino, and the abbey’s destruction in 1944.
The Allied forces attacked the abbey of Monte Cassino with 350 tons of explosives as part of their effort to break the German’s defensive Gustav Line during World War Two. The Allies then made further air assaults on Monte Cassino and the town of Cassino to try to weaken the German forces positioned there.
The Italian government paid for the reconstruction of Monte Cassino, although Abbot Ildefonso Rea made the appeal to restore the monastery two years after it was destroyed. Before they could rebuild the abbey, they had to remove more than 900,000 cubic yards of rubble from the site.
Yes, you can visit the reconstructed abbey of Monte Cassino, which is situated in the Latin Valley of Italy. Visitors can explore the cloisters and the crypt, as well as the museum, and pay their respects at the Monte Cassino war memorials.
Monte Cassino is the name for the hill above the town of Cassino, Italy, with Monte translating to mountain in English. In this sense, it essentially means ‘Mount Cassino’. You might also see it referred to as Montecassino in Italian.
Monte Cassino began on the 17th of January, 1944, and concluded on the 18th of May, 1944.
Allied casualties numbered around 55,000.
German casualties numbered approximately 20,000 soldiers.
There were in fact four distinct Battles for Monte Cassino, in which the Allies fought against the German defenders.
The Allied forces ultimately won the Battle of Monte Cassino, after four long months of struggle.
The bombing of the monastery caused the deaths of 230 Italian civilians.
It was important because it eventually broke the formidable Gustav Line during the Italian campaign in WW2, and also destroyed the abbey of Monte Cassino in the process.
Interview with Matthew Parker
https://www.nam.ac.uk/explore/italian-campaign
https://www.britannica.com/place/Cassino
https://ww2db.com/battle_spec.php?battle_id=312
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https://www.britannica.com/biography/Albert-Kesselring
https://www.britannica.com/biography/Mark-Clark
https://www.britannica.com/biography/Wladyslaw-Anders
https://www.britannica.com/biography/Oliver-Leese
https://www.britannica.com/biography/Geoffrey-Keyes
https://www.britannica.com/biography/Alphonse-Juin
Parker, M. (2014). Monte Cassino. United Kingdom: Headline.
http://www.historyofwar.org/articles/battles_cassino_4th.html
https://www.forces-war-records.co.uk/blog/2019/01/17/75th-monte-cassino
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http://www.historyofwar.org/articles/battles_cassino_2nd.html
https://www.history.co.uk/article/the-battle-of-monte-cassino
https://www.nationalww2museum.org/war/articles/destruction-of-monte-cassino-1944
http://www.historyofwar.org/articles/battles_cassino_3rd.html
https://www.nytimes.com/1984/02/27/world/40-years-later-the-message-of-monte-cassino-pax.html
https://www.abbaziamontecassino.org/index.php/en/visit-montecassino
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